Affirming, Not Creating: How the Church Acknowledged the Biblical Canon

 

Introduction

The formation of the Christian biblical canon has been a subject of theological and historical inquiry. A widespread misconception is that major Church councils, such as those held in the fourth and fifth centuries, decided which books would be included in Scripture. However, historical evidence suggests that these councils did not introduce new selections but rather affirmed texts already widely regarded as inspired by Christian communities dating back to the first and second centuries. The canon developed organically as early Christians recognized certain writings as authoritative based on their apostolic origins, doctrinal consistency, and liturgical use.

The Early Christian Recognition of Scripture (1st–2nd Century)

Apostolic Writings and Early Circulation

By the late first and early second century, Christians were already treating certain texts as inspired. The apostolic writings—particularly Paul’s letters and the four Gospels—were circulated widely among churches. Clement of Rome (c. AD 96) referenced Paul's letters, indicating that they were already regarded as divinely authoritative. (1)

Ignatius of Antioch (c. AD 110) quoted from the Gospels and Pauline epistles as scripture, reinforcing their early recognition. (2, 3) Papias of Hierapolis (c. AD 120) confirmed the apostolic origins of the Gospels, including Mark’s reliance on Peter’s eyewitness testimony. (4)

Early Canon Lists: Evidence of Widespread Recognition

By the late second century, explicit lists of recognized Christian writings began to appear, demonstrating that a core set of inspired books had already gained acceptance. The Muratorian Fragment (c. AD 170), one of the earliest known lists of New Testament books, confirms that many of the writings later affirmed at church councils—such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles—were already regarded as Scripture. (5). Though the list lacks Hebrews, James, and 1–2 Peter, its inclusion of most New Testament books demonstrates that a widely recognized canon was already forming.

Church Fathers also contributed to this process:

• Polycarp (c. AD 110-140), a disciple of the apostle John, referenced passages from Matthew, Luke, and Paul's epistles, treating them as authoritative. (6)

• Justin Martyr (c. AD 150) referred to the "memoirs of the apostles" (the Gospels) as authoritative writings read in Christian worship. (7)

• Irenaeus of Lyons (c. AD 180) defended the fourfold Gospel tradition, arguing that only Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John were legitimate apostolic accounts. (8)

Thus, by the late second century, the majority of what would become the New Testament canon had already been widely recognized.

The Canon in the Third and Early Fourth Century

While widespread consensus had developed, debates continued regarding Hebrews, Revelation, and some Catholic Epistles. Church leaders such as Origen (c. AD 250) categorized books into those universally accepted, those disputed, and those considered spurious. Similarly, Eusebius (c. AD 325) provided an early classification of New Testament writings. (9) His list, though acknowledging some disputed texts, confirmed that a core canon of books was already widely accepted.

The Role of Church Councils in Affirming the Canon

Councils as Recognizers, Not Creators of Canonical Scripture

Contrary to the misconception that church councils created the canon, historical evidence suggests that they merely affirmed existing Christian consensus. The major councils, such as those at Hippo (AD 393) and Carthage (AD 397, 419), formally listed books that had long been accepted by the majority of Christian churches. (10) Their lists closely matched Athanasius of Alexandria’s Easter Letter (AD 367), which had already provided a definitive list of New Testament books. (11)

Church councils played an essential role in resolving lingering disputes over books like Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2–3 John, and Revelation. While some Christian communities had hesitated to accept these writings, the councils provided clarity and affirmed the broader consensus that had already existed.

The Influence of Christian Usage

Another key factor in canon recognition was the consistent use of Scripture in worship, preaching, and theological discourse. Books widely used in the church—especially those cited by early theologians and included in liturgical readings—were understood to be inspired. The councils merely reinforced this widespread usage rather than selecting texts arbitrarily.

Conclusion

The affirmation of the biblical canon was a process that unfolded naturally within early Christian communities long before formal conciliar recognition. While councils helped settle lingering disputes, they did not introduce new selections but affirmed what had already been widely accepted by Christians from the first and second centuries. The canonical process was a gradual, organic development rooted in the life of the early Church.

Modern scholarship supports this understanding. As Bruce Metzger explains in The Canon of the New Testament, the canon developed as Christian communities recognized writings that had apostolic authority, doctrinal integrity, and widespread liturgical use. He states, "The Church did not create the canon, but rather acknowledged, preserved, and used the books that it regarded as divinely inspired and authoritative." (12) Similarly, Lee McDonald notes in The Formation of the Biblical Canon that early Christian communities played the decisive role in recognizing Scripture long before any ecclesiastical pronouncements. (13)

Thus, the canon was not the result of a sudden church ruling but a long-standing process of recognition, driven by apostolic authority, doctrinal consistency, and widespread use.